Explaining Basic Accounting Concepts and Business Structures Essay Example for Free

Explaining Basic Accounting Concepts and Business Structures Essay Explaining Basic Accounting Concepts and Business Structures I will explain the basic accounting concepts and business structures from the following topics: GAAP sources and hierarchy; Good accounting information using the qualities of accounting principles; Difference between Accrual based accounting and cash basis of accounting; Types of business structures and the features of each structure. 1. GAAP sources and hierarchy Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) is the set of accounting principles, standards and procedures that companies use to prepare their financial statements. GAAP principles are the bases of financial reports and the guidelines of United States accounting practices. There are four categories of sources of GAAP hierarchy as follows: Category (A): FASB Standards, Interpretations, and Staff Positions; APB Opinions; AICPA Accounting Research Bulletins. Category (B): FASB Technical Bulletins (no longer issued), AICPA Industry Audit and Accounting Guides, AICPA Statements of Position. Category (C): FASB Emerging Issues Task Force, AICPA AcSEC Practice Bulletins. Category (D): AICPA Accounting Interpretations, FASB Implementation Guides (Q and A), widely recognized and prevalent industry practices. The category (a) of the GAAP hierarchy has a higher authority than a FASB Technical Bulletin, which is in category (b).The hierarchy is important because it gives the out layer for companies to search for the specific accounting transactions. For example, if a specific transaction can not be covered in category (a), then companies will turn to categories (b) for selecting and applying appropriate accounting principles, then (c) and (d). 2. Good accounting information using the qualities of accounting principles Good accounting information should be understandable. If no one can not understand the accounting information presented, it becomes useless to lose all of the other qualities. The good accounting information should be Reliable and Relevant. Reliability means verifiable, representation faithfulness, and free of error and bias. If the accounting numbers are wrong, there is no any meaning to use the information. Relevance means predictive or feedback value presented on a timely basis. The internal managerial accounting reports are different from the external financial reports. The relevant information is needed to prepare the different kinds of reports. The good accounting information should be Comparability and Consistency. The good information can be used to identify the differences and similarities between companies. The company consistently use the same accounting treatment for better auditing purposes. 3. Difference between Accrual basis accounting and cash basis of accounting The revenue recognition principle and the expense matching principle are two key elements for Accrual basis accounting. Company uses accrual basis accounting to recognize income when goods are shipped or services are rendered, and to recognize expense when it is obligated to pay it. On the contrast, cash basis accounting recognizes the revenue and expenses when the cash is received and paid. The cash basis accounting is prohibited under GAAP because it does not record revenue and expense when earned and incurred. It will misstate the actual income and expenses incurred and can not reflect the real business operation during the accounting period. 4. Types of business structures and the features of each structure There are three types of business structures-Sole Proprietorship, Partnership, and Corporation. Sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person. It is the simplest form of business ownership. The sole proprietor is in direct control of all affairs and entitled all profits and losses and is free to transfer his interest in the sole proprietorship at will. The disadvantage is that the sole proprietor would be fully responsible for all debts and obligations related to the business. The business would have difficulty in raising capital. Partnership is a business owned by two or more persons associate a partner. Partnership can bring broad resources and unique skills. All the partners share profit and losses, share the right to manage and make major business decisions, have unlimited personal liability for obligation of the partnership. For tax advantage, the partnership does not pay federal income tax; rather, partners file their own individual tax return. Disadvantage is that partners are fully and personally liable for the debts if their partnership. Corporation is a legal entity distinct from its owners (called â€Å"shareholders† or â€Å"stockholders†) and manager. It is easy to raise fund. The major advantage of corporation is that the owners are not personally liable for the obligation. Stockholders are free to transfer their ownership interests. Corporation must pay income taxes on any profits that it makes, and stockholders generally do not have to pay income tax on its profits until they are distributed as dividends. The corporate tax rate generally is lower than the personal tax rate.

Self-Esteem, Control and Well-Being in Obesity

Self-Esteem, Control and Well-Being in Obesity Obesity in the UK – individual problem or national plague? Introduction: Levels of obesity are on the rise in the UK and following calls from doctors and other health professionals, the government has pledged to fight obesity with promises to help British society to fight the problem on a number of levels. Predictions are that in 2010 almost one third of adults will be obese (Lean et al., 2006), and the obesity epidemic, which is running out of control could bankrupt the health service (Haslam et al., 2006) adding to the calls for something to be done about the problem. Tony Blair has offered to provide money for prevention and fighting the existing symptoms of obesity. Obesity is arguably the greatest challenge to public health in Britain today and there is a need for effective action. One of the major warning signs is the rising levels of obesity among children and there is a growing recognition that if the problem is not tackled with some degree of urgency in this group the long term health of the nation will suffer. While there are now a number of wel l established potential treatments for obesity in the UK, it has been suggested that measures for enhancing self esteem would be particularly important in those groups identified as being at risk from later eating disorders and obesity (Button et al., 1997, p.46). The issue of health in general concerns the nation, with the government, consumers and businesses sharing the burden of addressing health related issues. The National Audit Office has estimated that obesity accounts for eighteen million days of sickness absence and 30 000 premature deaths each year (Bourn, 2001). Obesity has physical and psychological causes and symptoms but the nature of the psychological mechanisms involved in adjusting to obesity are unclear (Ryden et al., 2001). There are a number of health problems associated with obesity, with mortality rising exponentially with increasing body weight (Wilding, 1997).Despite the growing level of the problem, questions have been asked in respect of whether Britons really need this help at a national level and if they realise that obesity is a problem for individuals and the nation as a whole. The purpose of this study is to assess the views of Britons on the obesity issue. Levels of psychological well being, the locus of control and self esteem will be measured in relation to being overweight. Differences between men and women will be considered. In addition two different age groups will be investigated – under thirties will be compared with over thirties to ascertain similarities and differences. There is also an investigation into the effects, if any, of ethnicity on obesity. The main focus of interest will be to determine if there is a difference in self perception between those who consider themselves to be overweight and those who do not. In order to investigate the issue the body mass index will be calculated for all participants and compared with the perceptions they have of themselves in terms of being overweight. It is hypothesised that men will have higher levels of self esteem and will score more highly on measures of psychological well being than women. Previous studies have suggested that there are no significant differences between men and women in terms of locus of control in respect of weight (Furnham and Greaves, 1994). In order to investigate if this finding is still valid, the study will test the above variables taking into consideration differences in age and weight. Methodology: The sample will consist of a selection of individuals attending Weight Watchers meetings and sessions at the local gym. There will be sixty participants consisting of men and women aged over eighteen. Materials: A questionnaire will be designed to examine the variables discussed above and any relationship between them. The questionnaire will be divided into four parts:  · Part One – will ask questions about gender, age group (under thirties and over thirties), weight, height and will ask participants to declare whether o nt they believe themselves to be overweight;  · Part Two – will ask questions in respect of self esteem;  · Part Three – will ask questions in respect of locus of control;  · Part Four – will ask questions about psychological well being. In order to measure the effects of the various variables the following instruments will be used: Rotters Internal-External Locos of Control Scale (Rotter, 1996), Radloffs CES-D Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977) and Rosenbergs Self-Esteem Scale (SES) (Rosenberg, 1965). Procedure: Half of the questionnaires will be given to those attending Weight Watchers sessions and the other half will be administered to those attending the local gym. Participants will be informed of the nature and purpose of the study and will be given assurances tat all information given will be treated in the strictest confidence and will not be used for any other purpose. It will be stressed that participation in the study is voluntary and participants are free to withdraw at any time. Participants will also be free to omit any questions which they do not want to answer. Written consent will be obtained before participants take part in the study. Contact details will be given to the researcher in case of follow up queries. Analysis of Data: Data collected will be analysed using quantitative statistical analysis in the form of TTests. Discussion: The obesity epidemic in the UK continues to run out of control, with none of the measures that have been taken showing any sighs of halting the problem much less reversing the trend (Haslam, 2006, p.640). A number of areas have been identified which need to be addressed. There is the recognition that mental health problems in the context of low self esteem are associated with eating disorders. Mental well being is affected in the context of the workplace, with obese people often facing some degree of discrimination in their professional and social lives. There is also a growing body of evidence to suggest that the problem is more widespread in some ethnic groups than in others. Many of the medical problems and complications associated with obesity are found in adults, but the increasing prevalence of obesity or the tendency to become obese in children, is also a worrying trend, further strengthening suggestions that prevention rather than cure is the key to tackling the problem in th e long term. While prevention in terms of maintaining weight loss and preventing people from putting on weight in the first place is the ideal, maintaining weight loss has been a major limitation of many of the approaches so far adopted (Wliding, 1997,p.998). Self Esteem: Although there is a general consensus that there are a number of factors at work in the context of eating disorders, self image has frequently been thought of as having a high profile role in the nature of these disorders (Button et al., 1997, p.39). Research in this area has been to a large degree unclear as those who have typically participated in the research have been those who have been in the process of seeking help and may therefore not be representative of the obese population in general (Ryden et al., 2001, p.186). It has often been suggested that a low self image is present and can be a contributory factor in causing individuals to develop eating disorders. Dyken and Gerrard gathered considerable empirical evidence to suggest that patients with eating disorders had slower levels of self esteem than their counterparts who are of normal weight (Dyken and Gerrard, 1986). A great deal of the research has been speculative in nature with very little evidence to suggest a causal l ink between low self esteem and the onset of eating disorders. As discussed above, it has been documented that obese individuals face discrimination on a number of levels. This can lead to their accepting these negative perceptions which can reduce self esteem even further and can lead to mental health problems (Ryden et al., 2001). Studies carried out in Sweden have supported this idea, with individuals who were obese experiencing significantly psychological distress than not only their healthy counterparts, but than those who had been involved in various forms of accidents or who were chronically ill (Sullivan et al., 1993). Studies carried out by Button found that girls aged 11-12 who had low levels of self esteem were, indeed more likely to have developed an eating disorder than their counterparts when they took part in a follow up study some years later when they were aged 15-16. These girls also displayed a range of other psychological problems (Button, 1990 cited in Button et al., 1997). Dieting usually results in weight loss and the lower the calorie intake, the more weight will be lost. Weight is usually regained and there is evidence that cognitive behaviour therapy may be a more successful approach, particularly if it is coupled with physical exercise. This may have more long term success, making it an effective approach with children and adolescents as good behaviour patterns in terms of adopting a healthy lifestyle can be developed and maintained (Wilding, 1997). In order to investigate the area of self esteem further Button and colleagues investigated rates of self esteem in a much larger sample of girls aged 15-16. Those who were identified as having eating disorders did display lower levels of self esteem than their counterparts, and the area in which they had the lowest levels of self esteem was in respect of their external appearance, cited as an area of low self esteem by 75% of the respondents who were problematic eaters (Button et al., 1997). Gender Differences: Eating disorders have been viewed as largely affecting women, with relatively few studies having been carried out in respect of men who have problems with weight and weight control. Since the 1990s there have been increasing numbers of males being identified as having eating disorders (Fernandez-Aranda et al., 2004, p.368). Research has begun to focus on whether there are gender differences associated with eating disorders. It has been suggested that men who develop eating disorders have higher levels of the personality traits associated with these disorders as overall rates are less for men than they are for women. Research has shown that men had less of a preoccupation with ideal body size and the drive for thinness than females (Fernandez-Aranda et al., 2004). Mental Health: Eating disorders in general, and obesity in particular have been attributed to underlying psychological problems such as depression or an inability to cope with certain aspects of life (Leon and Roth, 1977). This has led to the increasing adoption of cognitive therapy methods, providing training in better ways to deal with the difficulties in ones life which can lead to obsessive eating behaviour. Ryden and colleagues have proposed that the coping mechanisms which individual shave at their disposal can have an enormous impact on whether or not they will become obese (Ryden et al., 2001). The Extent of the Problem: The body mass index has been increasing in a number of countries and in the UK the National Audit Office have found that in the period from 1984 to 1993 rates of obesity doubled for both men and women (National Audit Office, 1994) and have been on the rise ever since. Not only are the rates of obesity continuing to rise, with 17% of men and 21% of women currently obese in the UK, but they are rising at a faster rate than in the past, with people being fatter than they were in the past (Clark, 2006, 123). Obesity levels are rising faster in the UK than elsewhere (While, 2002, p.438). There are also some quite startling differences, with women in the UK who are the heaviest weighing up to twice as much as their counterparts of the same height who are not overweight. Despite an increasing awareness about obesity and the benefits of healthy eating and exercise, the obesity problem continues to rise, being attributed to a complex interplay between a number of environmental factors. In the ir work in respect of eating disorders and self esteem Button and colleagues found that the rates of partial eating disorders were quite high at about 8% (Button et al.,1997). Obesity is starting to overtake smoking in the UK as the greatest preventable cause of illness and premature death (Haslam, 2006, p.641). Obesity has been strongly linked with poverty and with a lack of available public information, with many individuals realising that high fat products were unhealthy but they were unable to judge which products were high in fat and by how much (Vlad, 2003p. 1308). Psychological Well Being: Eating disorders in general have been linked to overall psychological well being. This means that in addition to the nations physical health, obesity must be addressed in the context of the effect it is having on the nations psychological well being. Button et al. found that those who had been identified as having eating disorders scored low on the self esteem scale but also had higher scores on the anxiety scale than their counterparts. The authors pointed out that their work which involved school students, was carried out close to examinations which may account for increases in levels of anxiety, and they could therefore not suggest a causal link without further follow up work (Button et al., 1997). Button and colleagues used a questionnaire in order to elicit further information in respect of self esteem in their subjects. When girls expressed general dissatisfaction with themselves, this was most often referred to in the context of physical appearance, with those identified as having eating disorders being more likely to make globally negative comments about themselves (Button et al., 1997, p.45). The same research found that family was an important factor in negative perceptions and low self esteem with a significant number of those identified as having eating disorders reporting that their family lives were characterised by arguments and an inability to communicate. The growing recognition that obesity has a psychological component, with low self esteem being recognised as an important factor, has led to suggestions that support needs to be given to people who are obese rather than ridiculing them (Mayor, 2004). Causes of Obesity: If obesity is to be successfully tackled in the UK and elsewhere, a sound understanding of the root causes must be established. The spiralling levels of obesity in the UK and elsewhere over the past thirty years have prompted suggestions that it is the environment which is playing the largest part in the problem as genes could not have changed to such a degree in such a short space of time (Clark, 2006, p.124), although there is recognition that there is a genetic component (Barth, 2002, p.119), with research from twin studies suggesting that the tendency to become obese is inherited. Not only are people eating more than they did a generation ago, but there have been a number of changes to the types of activities in which people are engaged. There has been a steady decline in the need for active working at home or in the workplace and an associated increase in sedentary jobs and occupations. In real terms physical activity has been seen as having shifted from something which people w ere paid to do, to something which people must now pay for in the form of joining a gym or similar pastimes. Considerable criticism has been levelled at the food production industry which produces high calories foods which are being eaten as snacks, taking daily calorie allowances above the recommended allowances. There has been an attempt to address this problem in the form of a number of initiatives such as those to increase physical activity to two hours per week in schools and the promotion of fruit and vegetables in schools, but there is little evidence of widespread success. Research carried out by Skidmore and Yarnell has suggested that the majority of obese adults were not overweight as children. This is suggestive of the fact that obesity comes about as the result of excess calorie intake over a period of many years. Education for healthy eating and living is therefore seen as vital in preventing future obesity and the associated health risks (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004). Environmental factors: Despite the identification of a genetic component, it has been argued that obesity can be largely prevented, with lack of physical activity and chronic consumption of excess calories, being the main preventable causes of obesity (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p. 819). It has been suggested that the environment provides a number of opportunities for the over consumption which leads to excessive weight gain. This has led to the conclusion that the obesity epidemic can only be effectively targeted if there are major changes in the environment and the ways in which people interact with it in respect of food and eating (Clark, 2006). Effects of Obesity: Obesity affects people of all ages including children and has damaging effects on all organs in the body. Long term consequences include diabetes and hypertension which can ultimately lead to strokes and coronary heart disease (Barth, 2002, p.119). The effects of obesity in relation to mortality can be marked. Research carried out has found that the risk of diabetes in men who were very overweight increased to a risk of being forty two times more likely than those who were not overweight and women and children have been identified by research as the groups most affected by obesity (Bhate, 2007, p.173). The governments proposed intervention has come about due to the realisation that many individuals are not able to make enough proactive changes to prevent excess weight gain and are simply reacting to their environment, one in which people eat larger portions, are more prone to snacking and are taking less exercise than their counterparts from a generation ago. Food is seen to be attached to a range of emotions, with eating being associated with celebration as well as a comfort when one is depressed. Because of the huge impact which the environment appears to be having on obesity, it has been argued that education alone will be insufficient in dealing with the problem, and environmental changes are urgently needed (Lean et al., 2006). Attempts to tackle the obesity problem have themselves brought difficult issues in terms of adverse outcomes such as the rise in eating disorders as more and more people battle with their weight. It has been suggested that long term monitoring of approa ches to treating obesity is required in order to deal with these associated problems (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004). Obesity as a Disorder: There is a growing recognition that obesity comes about as a result of an addiction to food, and, as with all addictions those who suffer require help and advice. It would appear that many of those who are obese eat not when they are hungry but in the context of a wider social agenda, fuelled by the constant availability of food. Once the cycle of weight gain begins it becomes cyclical in its nature and is compounded by lack of exercise, which leads to greater levels of weight gain. Many commentators have suggested that the failure of traditional approaches to tackling obesity point to the fact that a more successful approach may be to take the view of obesity being a disability which is characterised by a range of adverse consequences. Like other addictions, obesity requires treatment and support. The benefits of effective treatment cannot be overstated as even a small weight loss can reduce health risk for obese individuals (Goldstein, 1992). Addressing the Obesity Issue: The problem of obesity is placing a strain on public resources in the National Health Service as well as endangering the nations health. Action is therefore required at the national level as it has been argued that many of the factors operating at the environmental level such as the availability if fast food and the lack of exercise cannot be dealt with at the level of the individual and must therefore be addressed through a number of public health initiatives. Guidelines for prevention and treatment have been introduced in the United States and the United Kingdom, but it has been suggested that their implementation may take a number of years due to their complex nature and the number of organisations involved in the process (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004). It has been suggested that the issue can only really be addressed through changes in the environment which will enable individuals to make more healthy lifestyle choices. Suggestions include making public transport more appealing and parks more inviting in order that individuals will want to take some moderate exercise and will not have to make considerable effort and choice in order to achieve this end. Eating healthy food should become the norm as these foods should be more prominently displayed in shops and other food outlets. While it is recognised that prevention would be the best ideal outcome in respect of obesity, until there is some success with preventative measures, the goal should be to help patients to deal with some of the physical and psychological costs of the problem and to ensure that any treatment given does not compound the problems that obese individuals already have. Prevention: Prevention is more important and easier to achieve than weight loss, with research showing that one third of obese patients will not lose weight by any medical means. It is therefore necessary to focus on preventing obesity in the first place, and enabling individuals to maintain their current weight. The principles of losing weight and maintaining weight loss are well known, but an effective evidence base of effective measures for preventing obesity does not currently exist (Haslam, 2006, p.641). The promotion of healthy eating and regular physical exercise is essential for both the prevention of future obesity and for treating individuals who are already overweight or obese. It has been suggested that obesity management should be included as an important part of health service planning with increasing numbers of staff trained in dealing with the problem. Research has shown that not only is considerable weight loss achievable through a programme of diet and exercise, but that this c an also prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes, which is becoming more common due to the increasing obesity problem (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p.821). Goals of Obesity Management: With the recognition that obesity is having a major effect on the health of the nation comes the realisation that something must be done to tackle the problem. The basic goal of obesity management is for individuals to reduce their weight in a way which is safe and not overly restrictive in terms of diet, which can lead to harmful adverse effects. Current recommendations from the World Health Organisation are that individuals should attempt to lose around 10% of their body weight (World Health Organisation, 1997), but for many individuals, particularly those who are unhealthy or physically inactive, this may not be realistic and it may be more reasonable to suggest not gaining any further weight as a realistic goal. Obesity in Children: One of the major areas of concern in respect of the obesity debate is the increasing prevalence of obesity in children. The government has set targets for the reduction of obesity in this age group but it has been suggested that the targets for reduction of the problem by 2010 are unlikely to be met because of confusion which exist among professional in respect of how to effectively tackle the problem. Even if preventative measures in respect of obesity were immediately successful, there would still be an epidemic of diabetes and related complications in the next two decades, because so many young people are already in the clinically â€Å"latent† phase of the disease, before clinical complications present (Haslam, 2006, p.641). As noted above one of the main problem areas is the issue of obesity in children, and many food preference choices are made in childhood, largely as a result of parental influence (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p.821). In March 2005, the Health secretary John Reid, when announcing the governments three year strategy in respect of obesity, said that improving childrens eating habits is central to making Britain a healthier nation. The issue of childhood obesity is of concern due to the short term and long term effects. Most of the recommendations in this strategy concerned ways of tackling the problem of obesity in children. The Audit Commission has poi nted out that little progress has been made in the area o childhood obesity and if present trends continue, the next generation will have a shorter life expectancy than their parents (The Audit Commission, 2003, cited in Cole, 2006). The British Medical Association has recommended a series of preventative measures for schools, including provision of healthy food in schools and the development of a curriculum pertaining to healthy eating. Advertising of unhealthy foodstuffs particularly aimed at children has largely been banned, and there have been calls for the Food Standards Agency to develop new standards in nutritional content, food labelling and marketing. It has been shown that there is a correlation between socioeconomic status and poor diet, so it has been suggested that efforts should be particularly concentrated on less well off parents to enable them to make better choices for their children (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p.821). Reilly and colleagues have investigated a number of risk factors for obesity in children. A number of factors have been identified but the causal links are largely unclear. One of the factors identified is the level of parental obesity, but it is unclear whether this is the result of a genetic component or the shared environment of the parents and their children (Reilly et al., 2005). Their study provides evidence for the early intervention in childhood obesity. Traditional methods have tended to focus on preventative measures in childhood and adolescence, an approach which Reilly has suggested is not beginning early enough and would go some way to explaining why these interventions have been largely unsuccessful. These authors have suggested that future preventative strategies should focus on short periods in early infancy, early childhood or even in utero. Self Perception: The effects on physical health of being obese are well documented, but recent years have seen an increasing focus on the psychological effects. Attention has increasingly focused on how having a body weight that deviates from that regarded as normal, may affect the way in which people evaluate themselves. There is some support in the literature that satisfaction of physiological, love and belonging, and self esteem needs are related to eating behaviour or weight management (Timmerman and Acton, 2001). A variety of theoretical perspectives suggest that overweight people should have lower levels of self esteem than their peers, but data in this respect have been inconsistent with reviewers unable to agree on a consensus of opinion (Pokrajac- Bulian, 2005). Obese individuals do tend to suffer from low levels of self esteem, and the lives of children can be made exceedingly difficult as they suffer considerable rebuke from their peers (While, 2002). The relationship between self esteem and health behaviours has had mixed results, suggesting that there may be additional factors to be taken into consideration, suggesting the need for further research in this area. Evidence indicates that in addition to low self esteem, those who are overweight suffer feelings of stigmatisation, indulge in binge eating and have a lower quality of life than their peers who do not have weight problems (Clark, 2006, p.123). It is more likely that those who have weight problems will experience depression and associated illnesses with one fifth of obese patents reporting having at least one period of clinical depression which required treatment. Obesity is associated with a number of problems in respect of self perception. It has been shown that diets which improve weight loss are often ineffective in the long term with individuals regaining the weight. This has been shown to led to binge eating (Polivy and Herman, 1995), which can further damage self confidence and self esteem. This can lead to further eating disorders with research showing that females who had dieted were eight times more likely to develop eating disorders than their counterparts who had not dieted (Patton et al., 1990, cited in British Dietetic Association, 1997, p.95). Research has also shown that there is a positive correlation between high levels of self esteem in women and prolonged weight loss and maintenance. This has important implications in the context of developing self esteem as it is women who are most at risk from the effects of obesity. Emotional Eating: Eating in response to emotions has been identified as a possible cause of the consumption of excess calories (Timmerman and Acton, 2001, p.691). These negative emotions can occur when basic needs as defined by Maslows hierarchy of needs are not satisfied and can cause stress to an individual. An individuals ability to care for himself or herself is based on the availability of a number of resources internal and external to the individual. Self esteem has been identified as part of a persons internal resource base, and if the basic needs of love and so on are met continually over time, this will be well developed and built upon. This means that in times of stress an individual can call on this bank of resources to deal with stress in a way which is not detrimental to overall well being. If needs are consistently not met the individual is unable to build up a bank of resources and may experience a decreased ability to deal with stressful situations which can in turn lead to emotional e ating and the risk of obesity and associated health problems associated with this. Whose responsibility? While it is now recognised that obesity is a problem for the country as a whole, questions have been asked about who should take responsibility. The increased levels of obesity have raised questions in respect of who should take responsibility for the nations health. This has caused ideas about corporate social responsibility to impact on the debate at a number of levels including the economy, the food industry and public perception of the food industry (Bhate, 2007). Research carried out by Bhate sought to investigate who was perceived by the public as having responsibility for the problem of obesity. There was a clear finding that consumers thought that the public should take responsibility for growing levels of obesity. Individuals were aware when they were eating unhealthy foods that there were certain health risks associated with these and may feel personally responsible for their actions (Bhate, 2007, p.174). Individuals did feel that there was not enough information given in respect of some foods and that this was the responsibility of manufacturers who should be put under pressure for adequate labelling by the government. Education and Training: As mentioned above, one of the danger areas in respect of obesity, is the fact that the problem is so widespread in children. Education is vital, not only in addressing and preventing the obesity, but in tackling the prejudice that is associated w Self-Esteem, Control and Well-Being in Obesity Self-Esteem, Control and Well-Being in Obesity Obesity in the UK – individual problem or national plague? Introduction: Levels of obesity are on the rise in the UK and following calls from doctors and other health professionals, the government has pledged to fight obesity with promises to help British society to fight the problem on a number of levels. Predictions are that in 2010 almost one third of adults will be obese (Lean et al., 2006), and the obesity epidemic, which is running out of control could bankrupt the health service (Haslam et al., 2006) adding to the calls for something to be done about the problem. Tony Blair has offered to provide money for prevention and fighting the existing symptoms of obesity. Obesity is arguably the greatest challenge to public health in Britain today and there is a need for effective action. One of the major warning signs is the rising levels of obesity among children and there is a growing recognition that if the problem is not tackled with some degree of urgency in this group the long term health of the nation will suffer. While there are now a number of wel l established potential treatments for obesity in the UK, it has been suggested that measures for enhancing self esteem would be particularly important in those groups identified as being at risk from later eating disorders and obesity (Button et al., 1997, p.46). The issue of health in general concerns the nation, with the government, consumers and businesses sharing the burden of addressing health related issues. The National Audit Office has estimated that obesity accounts for eighteen million days of sickness absence and 30 000 premature deaths each year (Bourn, 2001). Obesity has physical and psychological causes and symptoms but the nature of the psychological mechanisms involved in adjusting to obesity are unclear (Ryden et al., 2001). There are a number of health problems associated with obesity, with mortality rising exponentially with increasing body weight (Wilding, 1997).Despite the growing level of the problem, questions have been asked in respect of whether Britons really need this help at a national level and if they realise that obesity is a problem for individuals and the nation as a whole. The purpose of this study is to assess the views of Britons on the obesity issue. Levels of psychological well being, the locus of control and self esteem will be measured in relation to being overweight. Differences between men and women will be considered. In addition two different age groups will be investigated – under thirties will be compared with over thirties to ascertain similarities and differences. There is also an investigation into the effects, if any, of ethnicity on obesity. The main focus of interest will be to determine if there is a difference in self perception between those who consider themselves to be overweight and those who do not. In order to investigate the issue the body mass index will be calculated for all participants and compared with the perceptions they have of themselves in terms of being overweight. It is hypothesised that men will have higher levels of self esteem and will score more highly on measures of psychological well being than women. Previous studies have suggested that there are no significant differences between men and women in terms of locus of control in respect of weight (Furnham and Greaves, 1994). In order to investigate if this finding is still valid, the study will test the above variables taking into consideration differences in age and weight. Methodology: The sample will consist of a selection of individuals attending Weight Watchers meetings and sessions at the local gym. There will be sixty participants consisting of men and women aged over eighteen. Materials: A questionnaire will be designed to examine the variables discussed above and any relationship between them. The questionnaire will be divided into four parts:  · Part One – will ask questions about gender, age group (under thirties and over thirties), weight, height and will ask participants to declare whether o nt they believe themselves to be overweight;  · Part Two – will ask questions in respect of self esteem;  · Part Three – will ask questions in respect of locus of control;  · Part Four – will ask questions about psychological well being. In order to measure the effects of the various variables the following instruments will be used: Rotters Internal-External Locos of Control Scale (Rotter, 1996), Radloffs CES-D Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977) and Rosenbergs Self-Esteem Scale (SES) (Rosenberg, 1965). Procedure: Half of the questionnaires will be given to those attending Weight Watchers sessions and the other half will be administered to those attending the local gym. Participants will be informed of the nature and purpose of the study and will be given assurances tat all information given will be treated in the strictest confidence and will not be used for any other purpose. It will be stressed that participation in the study is voluntary and participants are free to withdraw at any time. Participants will also be free to omit any questions which they do not want to answer. Written consent will be obtained before participants take part in the study. Contact details will be given to the researcher in case of follow up queries. Analysis of Data: Data collected will be analysed using quantitative statistical analysis in the form of TTests. Discussion: The obesity epidemic in the UK continues to run out of control, with none of the measures that have been taken showing any sighs of halting the problem much less reversing the trend (Haslam, 2006, p.640). A number of areas have been identified which need to be addressed. There is the recognition that mental health problems in the context of low self esteem are associated with eating disorders. Mental well being is affected in the context of the workplace, with obese people often facing some degree of discrimination in their professional and social lives. There is also a growing body of evidence to suggest that the problem is more widespread in some ethnic groups than in others. Many of the medical problems and complications associated with obesity are found in adults, but the increasing prevalence of obesity or the tendency to become obese in children, is also a worrying trend, further strengthening suggestions that prevention rather than cure is the key to tackling the problem in th e long term. While prevention in terms of maintaining weight loss and preventing people from putting on weight in the first place is the ideal, maintaining weight loss has been a major limitation of many of the approaches so far adopted (Wliding, 1997,p.998). Self Esteem: Although there is a general consensus that there are a number of factors at work in the context of eating disorders, self image has frequently been thought of as having a high profile role in the nature of these disorders (Button et al., 1997, p.39). Research in this area has been to a large degree unclear as those who have typically participated in the research have been those who have been in the process of seeking help and may therefore not be representative of the obese population in general (Ryden et al., 2001, p.186). It has often been suggested that a low self image is present and can be a contributory factor in causing individuals to develop eating disorders. Dyken and Gerrard gathered considerable empirical evidence to suggest that patients with eating disorders had slower levels of self esteem than their counterparts who are of normal weight (Dyken and Gerrard, 1986). A great deal of the research has been speculative in nature with very little evidence to suggest a causal l ink between low self esteem and the onset of eating disorders. As discussed above, it has been documented that obese individuals face discrimination on a number of levels. This can lead to their accepting these negative perceptions which can reduce self esteem even further and can lead to mental health problems (Ryden et al., 2001). Studies carried out in Sweden have supported this idea, with individuals who were obese experiencing significantly psychological distress than not only their healthy counterparts, but than those who had been involved in various forms of accidents or who were chronically ill (Sullivan et al., 1993). Studies carried out by Button found that girls aged 11-12 who had low levels of self esteem were, indeed more likely to have developed an eating disorder than their counterparts when they took part in a follow up study some years later when they were aged 15-16. These girls also displayed a range of other psychological problems (Button, 1990 cited in Button et al., 1997). Dieting usually results in weight loss and the lower the calorie intake, the more weight will be lost. Weight is usually regained and there is evidence that cognitive behaviour therapy may be a more successful approach, particularly if it is coupled with physical exercise. This may have more long term success, making it an effective approach with children and adolescents as good behaviour patterns in terms of adopting a healthy lifestyle can be developed and maintained (Wilding, 1997). In order to investigate the area of self esteem further Button and colleagues investigated rates of self esteem in a much larger sample of girls aged 15-16. Those who were identified as having eating disorders did display lower levels of self esteem than their counterparts, and the area in which they had the lowest levels of self esteem was in respect of their external appearance, cited as an area of low self esteem by 75% of the respondents who were problematic eaters (Button et al., 1997). Gender Differences: Eating disorders have been viewed as largely affecting women, with relatively few studies having been carried out in respect of men who have problems with weight and weight control. Since the 1990s there have been increasing numbers of males being identified as having eating disorders (Fernandez-Aranda et al., 2004, p.368). Research has begun to focus on whether there are gender differences associated with eating disorders. It has been suggested that men who develop eating disorders have higher levels of the personality traits associated with these disorders as overall rates are less for men than they are for women. Research has shown that men had less of a preoccupation with ideal body size and the drive for thinness than females (Fernandez-Aranda et al., 2004). Mental Health: Eating disorders in general, and obesity in particular have been attributed to underlying psychological problems such as depression or an inability to cope with certain aspects of life (Leon and Roth, 1977). This has led to the increasing adoption of cognitive therapy methods, providing training in better ways to deal with the difficulties in ones life which can lead to obsessive eating behaviour. Ryden and colleagues have proposed that the coping mechanisms which individual shave at their disposal can have an enormous impact on whether or not they will become obese (Ryden et al., 2001). The Extent of the Problem: The body mass index has been increasing in a number of countries and in the UK the National Audit Office have found that in the period from 1984 to 1993 rates of obesity doubled for both men and women (National Audit Office, 1994) and have been on the rise ever since. Not only are the rates of obesity continuing to rise, with 17% of men and 21% of women currently obese in the UK, but they are rising at a faster rate than in the past, with people being fatter than they were in the past (Clark, 2006, 123). Obesity levels are rising faster in the UK than elsewhere (While, 2002, p.438). There are also some quite startling differences, with women in the UK who are the heaviest weighing up to twice as much as their counterparts of the same height who are not overweight. Despite an increasing awareness about obesity and the benefits of healthy eating and exercise, the obesity problem continues to rise, being attributed to a complex interplay between a number of environmental factors. In the ir work in respect of eating disorders and self esteem Button and colleagues found that the rates of partial eating disorders were quite high at about 8% (Button et al.,1997). Obesity is starting to overtake smoking in the UK as the greatest preventable cause of illness and premature death (Haslam, 2006, p.641). Obesity has been strongly linked with poverty and with a lack of available public information, with many individuals realising that high fat products were unhealthy but they were unable to judge which products were high in fat and by how much (Vlad, 2003p. 1308). Psychological Well Being: Eating disorders in general have been linked to overall psychological well being. This means that in addition to the nations physical health, obesity must be addressed in the context of the effect it is having on the nations psychological well being. Button et al. found that those who had been identified as having eating disorders scored low on the self esteem scale but also had higher scores on the anxiety scale than their counterparts. The authors pointed out that their work which involved school students, was carried out close to examinations which may account for increases in levels of anxiety, and they could therefore not suggest a causal link without further follow up work (Button et al., 1997). Button and colleagues used a questionnaire in order to elicit further information in respect of self esteem in their subjects. When girls expressed general dissatisfaction with themselves, this was most often referred to in the context of physical appearance, with those identified as having eating disorders being more likely to make globally negative comments about themselves (Button et al., 1997, p.45). The same research found that family was an important factor in negative perceptions and low self esteem with a significant number of those identified as having eating disorders reporting that their family lives were characterised by arguments and an inability to communicate. The growing recognition that obesity has a psychological component, with low self esteem being recognised as an important factor, has led to suggestions that support needs to be given to people who are obese rather than ridiculing them (Mayor, 2004). Causes of Obesity: If obesity is to be successfully tackled in the UK and elsewhere, a sound understanding of the root causes must be established. The spiralling levels of obesity in the UK and elsewhere over the past thirty years have prompted suggestions that it is the environment which is playing the largest part in the problem as genes could not have changed to such a degree in such a short space of time (Clark, 2006, p.124), although there is recognition that there is a genetic component (Barth, 2002, p.119), with research from twin studies suggesting that the tendency to become obese is inherited. Not only are people eating more than they did a generation ago, but there have been a number of changes to the types of activities in which people are engaged. There has been a steady decline in the need for active working at home or in the workplace and an associated increase in sedentary jobs and occupations. In real terms physical activity has been seen as having shifted from something which people w ere paid to do, to something which people must now pay for in the form of joining a gym or similar pastimes. Considerable criticism has been levelled at the food production industry which produces high calories foods which are being eaten as snacks, taking daily calorie allowances above the recommended allowances. There has been an attempt to address this problem in the form of a number of initiatives such as those to increase physical activity to two hours per week in schools and the promotion of fruit and vegetables in schools, but there is little evidence of widespread success. Research carried out by Skidmore and Yarnell has suggested that the majority of obese adults were not overweight as children. This is suggestive of the fact that obesity comes about as the result of excess calorie intake over a period of many years. Education for healthy eating and living is therefore seen as vital in preventing future obesity and the associated health risks (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004). Environmental factors: Despite the identification of a genetic component, it has been argued that obesity can be largely prevented, with lack of physical activity and chronic consumption of excess calories, being the main preventable causes of obesity (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p. 819). It has been suggested that the environment provides a number of opportunities for the over consumption which leads to excessive weight gain. This has led to the conclusion that the obesity epidemic can only be effectively targeted if there are major changes in the environment and the ways in which people interact with it in respect of food and eating (Clark, 2006). Effects of Obesity: Obesity affects people of all ages including children and has damaging effects on all organs in the body. Long term consequences include diabetes and hypertension which can ultimately lead to strokes and coronary heart disease (Barth, 2002, p.119). The effects of obesity in relation to mortality can be marked. Research carried out has found that the risk of diabetes in men who were very overweight increased to a risk of being forty two times more likely than those who were not overweight and women and children have been identified by research as the groups most affected by obesity (Bhate, 2007, p.173). The governments proposed intervention has come about due to the realisation that many individuals are not able to make enough proactive changes to prevent excess weight gain and are simply reacting to their environment, one in which people eat larger portions, are more prone to snacking and are taking less exercise than their counterparts from a generation ago. Food is seen to be attached to a range of emotions, with eating being associated with celebration as well as a comfort when one is depressed. Because of the huge impact which the environment appears to be having on obesity, it has been argued that education alone will be insufficient in dealing with the problem, and environmental changes are urgently needed (Lean et al., 2006). Attempts to tackle the obesity problem have themselves brought difficult issues in terms of adverse outcomes such as the rise in eating disorders as more and more people battle with their weight. It has been suggested that long term monitoring of approa ches to treating obesity is required in order to deal with these associated problems (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004). Obesity as a Disorder: There is a growing recognition that obesity comes about as a result of an addiction to food, and, as with all addictions those who suffer require help and advice. It would appear that many of those who are obese eat not when they are hungry but in the context of a wider social agenda, fuelled by the constant availability of food. Once the cycle of weight gain begins it becomes cyclical in its nature and is compounded by lack of exercise, which leads to greater levels of weight gain. Many commentators have suggested that the failure of traditional approaches to tackling obesity point to the fact that a more successful approach may be to take the view of obesity being a disability which is characterised by a range of adverse consequences. Like other addictions, obesity requires treatment and support. The benefits of effective treatment cannot be overstated as even a small weight loss can reduce health risk for obese individuals (Goldstein, 1992). Addressing the Obesity Issue: The problem of obesity is placing a strain on public resources in the National Health Service as well as endangering the nations health. Action is therefore required at the national level as it has been argued that many of the factors operating at the environmental level such as the availability if fast food and the lack of exercise cannot be dealt with at the level of the individual and must therefore be addressed through a number of public health initiatives. Guidelines for prevention and treatment have been introduced in the United States and the United Kingdom, but it has been suggested that their implementation may take a number of years due to their complex nature and the number of organisations involved in the process (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004). It has been suggested that the issue can only really be addressed through changes in the environment which will enable individuals to make more healthy lifestyle choices. Suggestions include making public transport more appealing and parks more inviting in order that individuals will want to take some moderate exercise and will not have to make considerable effort and choice in order to achieve this end. Eating healthy food should become the norm as these foods should be more prominently displayed in shops and other food outlets. While it is recognised that prevention would be the best ideal outcome in respect of obesity, until there is some success with preventative measures, the goal should be to help patients to deal with some of the physical and psychological costs of the problem and to ensure that any treatment given does not compound the problems that obese individuals already have. Prevention: Prevention is more important and easier to achieve than weight loss, with research showing that one third of obese patients will not lose weight by any medical means. It is therefore necessary to focus on preventing obesity in the first place, and enabling individuals to maintain their current weight. The principles of losing weight and maintaining weight loss are well known, but an effective evidence base of effective measures for preventing obesity does not currently exist (Haslam, 2006, p.641). The promotion of healthy eating and regular physical exercise is essential for both the prevention of future obesity and for treating individuals who are already overweight or obese. It has been suggested that obesity management should be included as an important part of health service planning with increasing numbers of staff trained in dealing with the problem. Research has shown that not only is considerable weight loss achievable through a programme of diet and exercise, but that this c an also prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes, which is becoming more common due to the increasing obesity problem (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p.821). Goals of Obesity Management: With the recognition that obesity is having a major effect on the health of the nation comes the realisation that something must be done to tackle the problem. The basic goal of obesity management is for individuals to reduce their weight in a way which is safe and not overly restrictive in terms of diet, which can lead to harmful adverse effects. Current recommendations from the World Health Organisation are that individuals should attempt to lose around 10% of their body weight (World Health Organisation, 1997), but for many individuals, particularly those who are unhealthy or physically inactive, this may not be realistic and it may be more reasonable to suggest not gaining any further weight as a realistic goal. Obesity in Children: One of the major areas of concern in respect of the obesity debate is the increasing prevalence of obesity in children. The government has set targets for the reduction of obesity in this age group but it has been suggested that the targets for reduction of the problem by 2010 are unlikely to be met because of confusion which exist among professional in respect of how to effectively tackle the problem. Even if preventative measures in respect of obesity were immediately successful, there would still be an epidemic of diabetes and related complications in the next two decades, because so many young people are already in the clinically â€Å"latent† phase of the disease, before clinical complications present (Haslam, 2006, p.641). As noted above one of the main problem areas is the issue of obesity in children, and many food preference choices are made in childhood, largely as a result of parental influence (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p.821). In March 2005, the Health secretary John Reid, when announcing the governments three year strategy in respect of obesity, said that improving childrens eating habits is central to making Britain a healthier nation. The issue of childhood obesity is of concern due to the short term and long term effects. Most of the recommendations in this strategy concerned ways of tackling the problem of obesity in children. The Audit Commission has poi nted out that little progress has been made in the area o childhood obesity and if present trends continue, the next generation will have a shorter life expectancy than their parents (The Audit Commission, 2003, cited in Cole, 2006). The British Medical Association has recommended a series of preventative measures for schools, including provision of healthy food in schools and the development of a curriculum pertaining to healthy eating. Advertising of unhealthy foodstuffs particularly aimed at children has largely been banned, and there have been calls for the Food Standards Agency to develop new standards in nutritional content, food labelling and marketing. It has been shown that there is a correlation between socioeconomic status and poor diet, so it has been suggested that efforts should be particularly concentrated on less well off parents to enable them to make better choices for their children (Skidmore and Yarnell, 2004, p.821). Reilly and colleagues have investigated a number of risk factors for obesity in children. A number of factors have been identified but the causal links are largely unclear. One of the factors identified is the level of parental obesity, but it is unclear whether this is the result of a genetic component or the shared environment of the parents and their children (Reilly et al., 2005). Their study provides evidence for the early intervention in childhood obesity. Traditional methods have tended to focus on preventative measures in childhood and adolescence, an approach which Reilly has suggested is not beginning early enough and would go some way to explaining why these interventions have been largely unsuccessful. These authors have suggested that future preventative strategies should focus on short periods in early infancy, early childhood or even in utero. Self Perception: The effects on physical health of being obese are well documented, but recent years have seen an increasing focus on the psychological effects. Attention has increasingly focused on how having a body weight that deviates from that regarded as normal, may affect the way in which people evaluate themselves. There is some support in the literature that satisfaction of physiological, love and belonging, and self esteem needs are related to eating behaviour or weight management (Timmerman and Acton, 2001). A variety of theoretical perspectives suggest that overweight people should have lower levels of self esteem than their peers, but data in this respect have been inconsistent with reviewers unable to agree on a consensus of opinion (Pokrajac- Bulian, 2005). Obese individuals do tend to suffer from low levels of self esteem, and the lives of children can be made exceedingly difficult as they suffer considerable rebuke from their peers (While, 2002). The relationship between self esteem and health behaviours has had mixed results, suggesting that there may be additional factors to be taken into consideration, suggesting the need for further research in this area. Evidence indicates that in addition to low self esteem, those who are overweight suffer feelings of stigmatisation, indulge in binge eating and have a lower quality of life than their peers who do not have weight problems (Clark, 2006, p.123). It is more likely that those who have weight problems will experience depression and associated illnesses with one fifth of obese patents reporting having at least one period of clinical depression which required treatment. Obesity is associated with a number of problems in respect of self perception. It has been shown that diets which improve weight loss are often ineffective in the long term with individuals regaining the weight. This has been shown to led to binge eating (Polivy and Herman, 1995), which can further damage self confidence and self esteem. This can lead to further eating disorders with research showing that females who had dieted were eight times more likely to develop eating disorders than their counterparts who had not dieted (Patton et al., 1990, cited in British Dietetic Association, 1997, p.95). Research has also shown that there is a positive correlation between high levels of self esteem in women and prolonged weight loss and maintenance. This has important implications in the context of developing self esteem as it is women who are most at risk from the effects of obesity. Emotional Eating: Eating in response to emotions has been identified as a possible cause of the consumption of excess calories (Timmerman and Acton, 2001, p.691). These negative emotions can occur when basic needs as defined by Maslows hierarchy of needs are not satisfied and can cause stress to an individual. An individuals ability to care for himself or herself is based on the availability of a number of resources internal and external to the individual. Self esteem has been identified as part of a persons internal resource base, and if the basic needs of love and so on are met continually over time, this will be well developed and built upon. This means that in times of stress an individual can call on this bank of resources to deal with stress in a way which is not detrimental to overall well being. If needs are consistently not met the individual is unable to build up a bank of resources and may experience a decreased ability to deal with stressful situations which can in turn lead to emotional e ating and the risk of obesity and associated health problems associated with this. Whose responsibility? While it is now recognised that obesity is a problem for the country as a whole, questions have been asked about who should take responsibility. The increased levels of obesity have raised questions in respect of who should take responsibility for the nations health. This has caused ideas about corporate social responsibility to impact on the debate at a number of levels including the economy, the food industry and public perception of the food industry (Bhate, 2007). Research carried out by Bhate sought to investigate who was perceived by the public as having responsibility for the problem of obesity. There was a clear finding that consumers thought that the public should take responsibility for growing levels of obesity. Individuals were aware when they were eating unhealthy foods that there were certain health risks associated with these and may feel personally responsible for their actions (Bhate, 2007, p.174). Individuals did feel that there was not enough information given in respect of some foods and that this was the responsibility of manufacturers who should be put under pressure for adequate labelling by the government. Education and Training: As mentioned above, one of the danger areas in respect of obesity, is the fact that the problem is so widespread in children. Education is vital, not only in addressing and preventing the obesity, but in tackling the prejudice that is associated w

Animal Cruelty :: Psychology, Conduct Disorder

For one to completely understand animal cruelty one must know how animal cruelty is categorized. Animal cruelty was first categorized as a symptom of conduct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1987 (McPhedran; 2008). Conduct disorder is defined as â€Å"a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others are major age appropriate societal norms or rules are violated† (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). To be diagnosed with conduct disorder, a person must have at least 3 of the 15 symptoms of the disorder presented. Other symptoms of conduct disorder include persistent patterns of aggression towards humans, lying and deception, theft and/or robbery, and destruction of property (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). There is variety of studies that shows that their factors that influence people’s judgments about cruelty. Attitudes about abuse and neglect can be reliably differentiated among both men and women; women tend to more empathic towards the animals that were abused; men and women differ with the regard to the structure of their attitude (Henry; 2008). The attitude about animal abuse differ between women and men is because men reflect a lower level of empathy than women, and that can result in men judging acts of violence differently (Pakaslanhti & Keltikanga- Jarvinen; 1997 as cited as Henry; 2008). Research has found that women have a stronger and broader moral strictures against aggression than men do (Perry, Perry & Rasmussen; 1986 as cited as Henry; 2008). Women appear to have a broader scope of what constitutes cruelty than men. When it comes to punishing people for abusing animals’ research showed that women recommended harsher punishments for acts of animal abuse than men and that recommended punishments were harsher when the victim was a puppy compared to when the victim was a chicken (Henry; 2008). When it comes to be mind set of describing animal abuse the type of animals was similar and it depended on the type of animal that was victimized for them to consider it was animal cruelty (Henry; 2008). A person mood at the moment of being questioned about punishment for animal cruelty depended if they wanted punishment are not. Results indicated that participants in a positive mood-state recommended harsher punishments for animal cruelty for the perpetrator of the abuse (Henry; 2008). People also recommended harsher punishment when the animal-victim was perceived as being more similar to humans (Henry; 2008). Animal Cruelty :: Psychology, Conduct Disorder For one to completely understand animal cruelty one must know how animal cruelty is categorized. Animal cruelty was first categorized as a symptom of conduct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1987 (McPhedran; 2008). Conduct disorder is defined as â€Å"a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others are major age appropriate societal norms or rules are violated† (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). To be diagnosed with conduct disorder, a person must have at least 3 of the 15 symptoms of the disorder presented. Other symptoms of conduct disorder include persistent patterns of aggression towards humans, lying and deception, theft and/or robbery, and destruction of property (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). There is variety of studies that shows that their factors that influence people’s judgments about cruelty. Attitudes about abuse and neglect can be reliably differentiated among both men and women; women tend to more empathic towards the animals that were abused; men and women differ with the regard to the structure of their attitude (Henry; 2008). The attitude about animal abuse differ between women and men is because men reflect a lower level of empathy than women, and that can result in men judging acts of violence differently (Pakaslanhti & Keltikanga- Jarvinen; 1997 as cited as Henry; 2008). Research has found that women have a stronger and broader moral strictures against aggression than men do (Perry, Perry & Rasmussen; 1986 as cited as Henry; 2008). Women appear to have a broader scope of what constitutes cruelty than men. When it comes to punishing people for abusing animals’ research showed that women recommended harsher punishments for acts of animal abuse than men and that recommended punishments were harsher when the victim was a puppy compared to when the victim was a chicken (Henry; 2008). When it comes to be mind set of describing animal abuse the type of animals was similar and it depended on the type of animal that was victimized for them to consider it was animal cruelty (Henry; 2008). A person mood at the moment of being questioned about punishment for animal cruelty depended if they wanted punishment are not. Results indicated that participants in a positive mood-state recommended harsher punishments for animal cruelty for the perpetrator of the abuse (Henry; 2008). People also recommended harsher punishment when the animal-victim was perceived as being more similar to humans (Henry; 2008).

Vectors And Projectiles :: Free Essays

Vectors And Projectiles After successfully completing the first two videos of the Paul Hewitt series, I have been drawn to this course. The third video of the series reviews the concepts of vectors and projectiles. In this video Paul goes over a lot of previously stated formulas. The ideas of how fast or hoe far an object travels are restated. The idea of how fast an object travels is known as its velocity. The velocity is found by finding how far an object travels over a period of time. It may be easier to multiply the pull of gravity, which in a free falling object is ten meters per second accelerating, by the seconds the object remains it the air. The product will result in how fast the object was traveling. The idea of how far an object travels is known as the distance. The distance can be found by multiplying the amount of time an object is in the air by itself and then multiplying the results by five. For example, a rock dropped off a cliff takes five seconds to strike bottom. Multiply five times itself and then by five. The rock was dropped from 125 meters high. My favorite part of this video was when Paul explained about a time he went on a church trip hang gliding. The purpose of the story was to get a point across about dropping a rock off a cliff and being able to determine the distance to the bottom. The humor in this helped me grasp the concept of time. The humor was he dropped the rock and it rolled down because there was not a straight drop. The point he was trying to get was to throw the rock. Not to throw it up or down, but to throw it straight and it would strike the bottom at the same time as it would on a free fall.

Has EU aviation policy failed to meet its overall objective of producing safe, affordable, convenient and efficient services for its customers?

Introduction I don’t agree the EU aviation policy has failed to meet its overall objective of producing safe, affordable, convenient and efficient service for its customer. Mega-policy, according to De (2011, p.22) is master policy that deals with overall goals, certain basic assumption policy instruments and implementation strategies with the aim of typically large scale investments, and is divided as internal and external policy. In the EU aviation industry context, internal policy is meant to govern EU registered airlines whereas External governs non-EU registered airlines. The main aim of EU is to achieve a safe, affordable, convenient and efficient service for consumers. To provide a safe, affordable, convenient and efficient services1. Internal Policyi.Safety: EU established the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) with the goal of ensuring civil aviation safety for its member countries (European Commission, 2009). The agency’s main task is to ensure air transport is safe as well as sustainable. To achieve this important goal, the agency has developed some of safety and environmental rules that must be adhered to by all stakeholders. In addition, it constantly monitors implementation of these standards through regular inspections of member states’ adherence to the rules, as well as offering technical support through training. Through EASA, EU regulates pilot and other crew member training as well as issuance of licences for European pilots. The establishment of single aviation market has been a huge success in enabling the EU agencies to collaborate in monitoring safety policy implementations. For example, European Commission, European Aviation Safety Agency and Eurocontrol have collaborated under the pillar of safe aviation services to the passengers through licensing regulations. Other agencies involved in safety regulation are national civil aviation authorities, and safety investigation authorities, who work to incorporate all stakeholders, including aircraft manufacturers and airline companies, in safety measures. The agencies operate under the common safety rules, which enable them to do random safety inspections at any European airport. Statistics show that, despite the rise in traffic over the last two decades, EU’s air safety initiatives have successfully maintained high standards in terms of aviation safety (EASA Annual Safety Review). It must, however, be noted that despite the raft of security measures, the notion of ‘zero risk’ in aviation does not exist, and occasional cases of accidents may occur. In such cases, EU advises that thorough investigations is the best approach, as studies show that accidents do not occur as a result of single event but a combination of multiple prior events (Ferroff et al., 2012). ii. Freedom to establish & provide services: EU’s establishment of a single European Aviation Market, from the initial 27 national air transport markets all over Europe, has created an atmosphere of success in terms of freedom to all markets. The initiatives were meant to: Increase market access top every European carrier, with no restriction on capacity; Ensure no discrimination in terms of license provision across Europe; Ensure freedom to provide services to the aviation industry Ensure operators’ freedom to pricing their product and services Ensure implement penalties on those who infringe on the procedures The increase in more choices has also seen the number of EU routes increase by 25 percent from 1992 to 2011. The increased competition has led to 420 percent rise in intra-EU routes with more than two carriers over the same period (Zamarreno, 2012). Finally, the EU initiative led to rise in new entrants, which facilitated competition thus the emergence of market for low-cost air services, which currently account for 40 percent of EU aviation market.2. External Policyi. Market Opening The external aviation policy has been an integral part of EU’s strategy in effort towards greater flexibility, consistency and transparency in matters international civil aviation. To achieve these goals, EU has been gradually and consistently making and ratifying bilateral and multilateral agreements with other international aviation bodies outside EU. As such, EU has been carrying out is horizontal mandate of bringing the existing bilateral and multilateral agreements into line with EU laws. They also identified the creation of a Common Aviation Area with neighbouring nations, including United States, Canada, Australia, Brazil and India among others as an important step towards realising sustainable growth. This realisation has led to: Over 117 non-EU states accepting EU designation; Close to 1000 bilateral aviation safety agreements have conformed to EU laws, which have translated into over 70 percent rise in EU air traffic; Some neighbouring countries willingly participate in a pan- European Common Aviation Area e.g. agreements with Morocco (signed in December 2006) and Israel (signed in July 2012) among many other nations; Comprehensive agreements with key partners such as United States, Canada and Brazil, which aims to open partners’ markets, removal of investment barriers, and converging regulations across borders; Increased level playing field through adoption of common rules and standards that ensures greater aviation safety, efficient infrastructure, consumer protection and lower prices due to competition (Zmarreno, 2012). ii. Affordability and Convenience An external policy has meant that EU citizens benefits from reduced prices and more travel offers resulting from competition between EU and international airlines. Moreover, every airline must up its game by offering better services in terms of quality and convenience to withstand competition. The European Union aviation industry employs more than five million people around the world and contributes ˆ365 billion to the European GDP (Sandbag, 2012). In spite of the current economic crisis, it is projected that global aviation industry will continue to experience an average annual growth of 5 percent till 2030. When EU emphasises its commitment to external partnerships through their external aviation policies, their goal is to ensure barriers to growth is eliminated through removal of any limiting factor of investment (e.g. airline ownership). It must be noted that initial ownership of airlines were highly regulated, with governments restricting foreign ownership in what was cited as national security measures. However, the discriminatory approach to ownership was removed, thanks to EU’s raft measures to increase fairness, allowing more openness in market access and competition. For example, EU has a general ownership rule that allows up to 49 percent foreign owne rship of a European aviation company (European Commission, 2009). This is much better than the United States’ 25 percent of voting stocks restrictions to foreign ownership. Arguably, this arrangement has made EU aviation industry more attractive to external investors, hence the region’s benefits from large economy of scale. iii. Environmental Safety Aviation industry is responsible for 2.5 percent of the total global carbon emission (Sandbag, 2012). This percentage rises to 4.9 percent of the total anthropogenic carbon effect if all the radiation components are included. Put to context, this would make aviation industry the seventh largest carbon emitting ‘country’ worldwide. The forecast from the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) indicates that by 2036 carbon emissions from the industry alone will hit 300% compared to 2011 levels (Bows, et al., 2010). European Union’s decision to include aviation industry into its carbon market, with the introduction of Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), signalled their desire to protect the global climate. More importantly, EU member countries ensured EU law has primacy over national law, hence giving the union broader power to control any form of environmental destruction that may emerge from a single country’s non-compliance. In December 2012, EU’s court of Justice made a major landmark decision when it ruled out that the decision by the EU to include the international aviation in the ETS did not contravene international law as claimed by many international airline operators (Sandbag, 2012). This meant that the court gave EU authority to implement the carbon emission policy. Although there is still an ongoing row that has escalated into a number of non-EU members joining forces together to challenge EU and its emission policy, the steps towards safer environment is on course, with EU leading the park towards realising this important milestone It is important to note that major EU airlines are in the process of adopting ETS to set pace for their international peers. This is an important step considering that 25 percent of the total aviation emission comes from the region’s airlines (Braun, 2008). Conclusion EU aviation policy has been hailed around the world as one that has achieved success amid the biting economic challenges facing many airline industry players. EU aviation industry has seen tremendous growth and development for the last two decades. One of reasons for this astronomical growth has been attributed to the union’s efforts to provide safe, affordable, convenient and efficient service for its customers. Policy formulation, research and implementation are some of the most important operational aspects of aviation sector the union has embraced. Despite the numerous challenges, some of which are cross-border related, various reports show that EU’s efforts have resulted into some measurable success that is not comparable to any other regional union around the world. The union’s mega policy on aviation, which consists of internal and external, has seen substantial changes in safety, freedom to establish and provide more choices, opening of more markets, incr eased affordability & convenience and environmental safety. These initiatives have also led to affordable pricing by the airlines, convenience, and safer environment. It’s no doubt the reason why EU is considered the world’s largest and the most successful regional market integration with the most liberalised air transport. References Bows, A., Mander, S. Randles, S., and Anderson K. (2010). Aviation emission in the context of climate change: a consumption- production approach. Final Policy Report. June 2010. Braun, M. (2008). The evolution of emission trading in the European Union- The role of policy networks, knowledge and policy entrepreneurs. Accounting Organisations and Society doi:10.1016/j.aos.2008.06.002: 1-19. De, P.K. (2011). Public Policy and Systems. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. EASA Annual Safety Review: http://easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/general publications European Commission. (2009). FWC Sector Competitiveness Studies- Competitiveness of the EU Aerospace Industry with focus on: Aeronautics Industry. European Commission Final Report, 15 December 2009. Ferroff, C., Mavin, T.J., Bates P.R. and Murray, P.S. (2012). A case for social constructionism in aviation safety and human performance research. Aeronautica, Issue 3, p. 1-12. Sandbag (2012), Aviation and the EU ETS: What happened in 2012 during ‘Stop the Clock’December 2012. Last retrieved on 14 May 2012 from http://www.sandbag.org.uk/site_media/pdfs/reports/Sandbag_Aviation_and_the_EU_ETS_2012_171213_1.pdf Zmarreno, C.M. (2012). EU aviation policy in terms of access market. Presentation for Euromed Aviation II: initial workshop on Market Access, Brussels, 17 December 2012.

Geomechanics Lab Report

Aim The main intention of this investigation was to determine the various stages of the Atterberg Limits. These included the liquid limit test (LL), plastic limit test (PL), plastic index test (PI) and linear shrinkage (LS) of a soil sample provided by the administration. This was then followed by a sieve analysis to determine the particle size distribution of another soil sample so that a suitable classification in both situations could be made in accordance with the Australian Standards AS1726 – 1993. Procedure (Sample preperation)On commencement of the experiment, each group was provided with two parts of 500grams of soil retrieved from the field and then oven dried by the experiment supervisor. One part of the soil sample was coarse grain gravel for the particle size distribution chart and sieve analysis, whilst the remaining 500 grams of soil was of fine grained fraction. * Preparation of Coarse Grained Fraction During this procedure the mass of 500grams of soil was recor ded and soaked in water for duration of 24 hours. This was then followed by placing the soil sample into a 0. 75mm mesh sieve and the entire fine particle was washed away using running tap water and a small spray bottle until the water had started running clear. The sieved sample was then transferred in a tray which was again put into the oven at 100 degrees for 24 hours. * Preparation of Fine Grained Fraction The remainder of the 500 grams of the sample was then sieved through a 0. 425 mm mesh sieve and the contents collected. This procedure was done until approximately 150 to 200grams of material was successfully passing sieve. Procedure (Sieve Analysis)This procedure involved the sieve analysis of the coarse fraction. This involved weighing the mass of the oven dried coarse grained fraction so that we are able to determine the particle size distribution. For this experiment the mass of coarse fraction used was 312. 10 grams. This was then followed by arranging the sieves from top to bottom in order from larger gapped mesh in the sieve to the smaller one (i. e. 37. 5mm to 0. 075mm) and then pouring the sample in the top sieve whilst shaking it for approximately 10 minutes.This provided mechanical energy to the soil allowing for it to pass all the sieve layers. The next procedure involved recording the soil mass that had accumulated on each sieve and the bottom pan. Furthermore the percentage of original mass retained and cumulative passing % vs. particle size plot has been constructed as shown in Appendix A. As shown in the plot it can be noted that the results obtained were not accurate enough for the effective size values of D_10 and D_30 to be calculated. Yet the effective size D_60 was able to be found and was shown to be 1. mm as shown in the particle size vs percentage passing table in appendix A. Due to the fact that all effective size values have not been able to be attained from the graph, the uniformity coefficient C_u and the coefficient of curvat ure C_c were not able to be calculated. Yet if they could be then they would be calculated using these equations: Cu=D60D10 Cc=D102D10*D60 where CU=Coefficient of Curvature Cc=Coefficient of Curvature All values recorded have been further discussed in the results section of this report. Procedure (Atterberg Limits determination) * Liquid Limit (LL)The liquid limit test west performed on the fine Sandy soil over the course of two sessions to determine the water content (percentage) at the point when the soil started to behave with liquid qualities. This test procedure involved gradually adding water to a round well created in two thirds of the soil sample on a glass plate. Then using two spatulas the sample was mixed until a smooth paste was formed. This was then followed by placing a small amount of the sample into the liquid limit device and leveling it horizontally using the spatula to create a smooth surface.Using the grooving tool the sample in the cup was divided in half. To de termine the number of blows the handle of the mechanism was rotated at a speed of two blows per second and the number of blows recorded until the soil closed the groove to a length of 1 cm. It was expected that the number of blows be as close to 25+ or – 3 as possible. The group was successful in our fourth attempt where 28 blows were recorded. Once the sample was successful it was removed from the liquid limit cup and placed within a tin and the mass weighed. This was determined to calculate the moisture content percentage.The mixture in the liquid limit range was placed in a 0. 25 meter length mould with a internal diameter of 0. 025 meters and left on top of the oven so that the linear shrinkage could be determined. All values obtained are discussed in the results. * Plastic Limit (PL) To determine the plastic limit (as a percentage), after which the soil could no longer be deformed; water was added to the remaining one third of the dry soil on a separate glass plate and m olded by hand. Small amounts of the soil were rolled on the flat glass plate until they formed into a diameter of 3 mm and then started to break apart.According to AS12989 it was proved that the soil had reached its plastic limit. This soil was then placed in a tin and similarly to the liquid limit all mass values of the tin and sample were recorded. These were left to dry in the oven. All results obtained the following day have been discussed in the results section. * Linear Shrinkage (%) As instructed, results for the linear shrinkage were collected after duration of 24 hours from the laboratory and the linear shrinkage (in percentage) was calculated using the formula: LS=LsL*100 where Ls=Recorded Shrinkage L=Initial Length of SampleIn addition to the linear shrinkage, all dry mass results were also collected from the previous day and recorded as shown in the results section of this report. * Plastic Index Conduction of the plastic limit and linear shrinkage test led to the calcul ation of the moisture content in percentage and this further allowed us to calculate the plastic index using the formula. Ip=Wl- Wp where Wl=Liquid Limit Wp=Plastic Limit * Classification of Soil After the soil tests have been completed as listed above and results obtained, the soil sample was classified according to the Australian Standards AS1726 – 1993.To aid in this classification of the soil, table 8 (Identification and Classification of Coarse Grained Soils) and table 9 (Identification and classification of Fine grained Soils) as well as Graph 1 (Plasticity Chart vs. Liquid Limit) have been used and attached in Appendix C. Further criteria such as Plasticity of Fines, Color of Soil, Cohesive strength and Classification Group symbol (Table 7 Soil Classification Symbols) can also be used. Results * Sieve Analysis – Determining the Particle size Distribution Tin #| | Mass of Wet soil + Tin| 203. 79| Mass of Dry soil + Tin| 165. 0| Mass of Tin| 32. 60| Mass of Moistu re| 38. 19| Mass of Dry Soil| 133. 00| Moisture Content| 28. 70| Initisl Mass of Oven Dried Sample| 500g| Mass of oven Dried Sample retained over 75? m| 312. 1g| Percentage of Coarse Fraction| 37. 58g| Mass of Dry sample passing the 75? m| 187. 9g| Table 1: Soil Sample Preparation Values – Total Mass of Sample used for Sieve Analysis = 500 grams – Mass of Coarse Fraction of Sample Used for Sieve Analysis AS Apperture| Mass Retained (g)| % Retained| % Passing| 37. 5mm| 0. 00| 0. 00%| 100. 00%| 26. 5mm| 0. 00| 0. 00%| 100. 00%| 19mm| 13. 0| 2. 60%| 97. 40%| 13. 2mm| 14. 70| 2. 94%| 94. 46%| 9. 5mm| 1. 00| 0. 20%| 94. 26%| 6. 7mm| 13. 90| 2. 78%| 91. 48%| 4. 75mm| 17. 30| 3. 46%| 88. 02%| 2. 36mm| 61. 60| 12. 32%| 75. 70%| 1. 18mm| 63. 10| 12. 62%| 63. 08%| 600? m| 51. 40| 10. 28%| 52. 80%| 425? m| 22. 00| 4. 40%| 48. 40%| 300? m| 20. 30| 4. 06%| 44. 34%| 150? m| 22. 60| 4. 52%| 39. 82%| 75? m| 7. 60| 1. 52%| 38. 30%| Pan| 0. 40| 0. 08%| 38. 22%| | SUM = 308. 9| | | Table 2: Particle size Distribution of the Soil Sample Particle size vs. Percentage Passing (%) can be viewed in the Appendix section of this report.D_10| N/A| D_30| N/A| D_60| 1. 1 mm| Coefficient of Uniformity| N/A| Coefficient of Curvature| N/A| Table 3: Particle Size Determination Coefficients As the Particle Size vs. Percentage Passing graph was unable to be plotted fully, the values for D_10 and D_30 could not be determined hence not allowing the Coefficient of Uniformity and Curvature to be found. * Atterberg Limits Determination (Liquid Limit) Liquid limit| Test no. | Test 1| Test 2| Test 3| Test 4| Tin #| 12| 58| 80| 61| Number of Blows| 7| 21| 14| 28| Mass of Wet Soil and Tin| 45. 8| 35. 77| 39. 32| 27. 6| Mass of Dry Soil and Tin| 38| 28. 4| 34. 5| 22. 5| Mass of Tin| 24. 21| 14. 57| 26. 31| 15. 42| Mass of Moisture| 7. 8| 7. 37| 4. 82| 4. 86| Mass of Dry Soil| 13. 79| 13. 83| 8. 19| 7. 08| Moisture Content| 56. 56%| 53. 29%| 58. 85%| 68. 64%| Table 4: Liquid Limit Determinati on The results obtained in the table 4 (liquid limit determination) above show that after conducting four tests in the lab the number of blows were varied quite a lot. The reason behind this was that at the start a greater amount of liquid then required was placed in the soil making it two wet.Then as extra dry soil was added to the sample the number of blows gradually increased allowing for a result acceptable within the 25 + – 3 limit was met in test 4 Hence the soil sample’s LL can be taken as 68. 64%. * Atterberg Limits Determination (Plastic Limit) Plastic Limit| Test no. | Test 1| Tin #| 16| Mass of Wet Soil and Tin| 37. 06| Mass of Dry Soil and Tin| 34. 5| Mass of Tin| 23. 94| Mass of Moisture | 2. 56| Mass of Dry Soil| 10. 56| Moisture Content| 24. 24%| Avg. Moisture Content| 59. 34%| Table 5: Plastic Limit DeterminationThe above table represents the values calculated and determined results for the plastic limit of the soil in this experiment. This was done by weighing the mass of the soil and tin after it had been rolled into a 3mm diameter rod until it crumbled and then oven dried. * Atterberg Limits Determination (Plastic Index) Looking at the graph attached in the appendix B (Number of Blows vs. Moisture Content), the value for the Plastic Limit was unable to be as accurately determined as we would have hoped but using the plastic Index equation below it was found to be 44. %. Plastic Index %= Liquid Limit-Plastic Limit=___________% Plastic Index %= 68. 64-24. 24=44. 4% Linear Shrinkage Determination| Mould No. | 3| Crumbling of Sample| NO| Length of Mould| 254mm| Curling of Sample| NO| Length of Soil| 222mm| Cracking of Sample| YES| Linear Shrinkage| 12. 60%| * Atterberg Limits Determination (Linear Shrinkage) Table 6: Linear Shrinkage Determination After removing the mould containing the soil sample after 24 hours from the top of the oven, the linear shrinkage of the soil was measured using a ruler.The result as shown above in table 6, the soil has shrunk 32mm in length and cracking of the sample has occurred. The same has not crumbled at touch and has not shown any curling effects. The Overall linear shrinkage is calculated to be 12. 60%. LS=LsL*100 LS=32254*100=12. 60% Discussion The classification of the Coarse and Fine Grained soil was made according to the Australian Standards as1726 – 1993. All justification of the results and classifications of the Sieve Analysis and Atterberg Limits have been made through the combination of the identification and classification tables in the appendix. Coarse Grained Soil As per the Particle size plot in the appendix, the sample is shown to have only coarse grain materials. Consisting of 22% Gravel (7% Medium Grain and 15% Fine Grain) and 38% Sand (22% Coarse Grain, 13% Medium Grain and 3% Fine Grain), indicates that the soil is widely distributed and hence making it a Gravelly SAND. * Fine Grained Soil Using the Atterberg Limits to find the Plastic Limit and Liq uid Limit percentages, these were applied to the Plasticity vs. Liquid Limit Chart (AS1726-1993) to determine the classification of the soil sample.As the intersection point is below the â€Å"A† line with a high liquid limit of 68. 64%, the reaction to shaking was low to none and the toughness is low, the classification of the soil sample is most likely to be MS-SILT Highly Plastic. Also according to the Australian Standards the color of our soil was Brown mottled red-brown. Since the fine grained soil was cohesion less and free running we can classify the soil as dry. In accordance to the Plasticity vs. Liquid Limit chart the soil is of High Plasticity as the liquid limit was of a value greater than 50%.In addition to the above, the particle size distribution curve is also widely spread so the soil is classified as â€Å"Well Graded†. Conclusion In this experiment we used the Sieve analysis and Atterberg Limits tests to investigate the properties of the soil as menti oned in the Australian Standards AS1726 -1993. In addition sample tests were conducted including the liquid limit test (LL), plastic limit test (PL), plastic index test (PI) and linear shrinkage (LS) of the soil sample provided by the administration. All results obtained have been justified and the classifications of the soil made in accordance to the Australian Standards 1726 – 1993.References Evans R, 2010, HES2155 Geomechanics, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne VIC. Appendices Appendix A (Particle Size vs. Percentage Passing Plot) Appendix B (Plot of Number of Blows Vs. Moisture Content) Appendix C (Soil Classification Tables) Table 7: List of Soil Classification Symbols. Table 8: Identification and Classification of Coarse Grained Soil. Table 9: Identification and Classification of Fine Grained Soil. Graph 1: Plasticity Chart vs. Liquid Limit Appendix D (Formulas and Sample Calculations) Geomechanics Lab Report Aim The main intention of this investigation was to determine the various stages of the Atterberg Limits. These included the liquid limit test (LL), plastic limit test (PL), plastic index test (PI) and linear shrinkage (LS) of a soil sample provided by the administration. This was then followed by a sieve analysis to determine the particle size distribution of another soil sample so that a suitable classification in both situations could be made in accordance with the Australian Standards AS1726 – 1993. Procedure (Sample preperation)On commencement of the experiment, each group was provided with two parts of 500grams of soil retrieved from the field and then oven dried by the experiment supervisor. One part of the soil sample was coarse grain gravel for the particle size distribution chart and sieve analysis, whilst the remaining 500 grams of soil was of fine grained fraction. * Preparation of Coarse Grained Fraction During this procedure the mass of 500grams of soil was recor ded and soaked in water for duration of 24 hours. This was then followed by placing the soil sample into a 0. 75mm mesh sieve and the entire fine particle was washed away using running tap water and a small spray bottle until the water had started running clear. The sieved sample was then transferred in a tray which was again put into the oven at 100 degrees for 24 hours. * Preparation of Fine Grained Fraction The remainder of the 500 grams of the sample was then sieved through a 0. 425 mm mesh sieve and the contents collected. This procedure was done until approximately 150 to 200grams of material was successfully passing sieve. Procedure (Sieve Analysis)This procedure involved the sieve analysis of the coarse fraction. This involved weighing the mass of the oven dried coarse grained fraction so that we are able to determine the particle size distribution. For this experiment the mass of coarse fraction used was 312. 10 grams. This was then followed by arranging the sieves from top to bottom in order from larger gapped mesh in the sieve to the smaller one (i. e. 37. 5mm to 0. 075mm) and then pouring the sample in the top sieve whilst shaking it for approximately 10 minutes.This provided mechanical energy to the soil allowing for it to pass all the sieve layers. The next procedure involved recording the soil mass that had accumulated on each sieve and the bottom pan. Furthermore the percentage of original mass retained and cumulative passing % vs. particle size plot has been constructed as shown in Appendix A. As shown in the plot it can be noted that the results obtained were not accurate enough for the effective size values of D_10 and D_30 to be calculated. Yet the effective size D_60 was able to be found and was shown to be 1. mm as shown in the particle size vs percentage passing table in appendix A. Due to the fact that all effective size values have not been able to be attained from the graph, the uniformity coefficient C_u and the coefficient of curvat ure C_c were not able to be calculated. Yet if they could be then they would be calculated using these equations: Cu=D60D10 Cc=D102D10*D60 where CU=Coefficient of Curvature Cc=Coefficient of Curvature All values recorded have been further discussed in the results section of this report. Procedure (Atterberg Limits determination) * Liquid Limit (LL)The liquid limit test west performed on the fine Sandy soil over the course of two sessions to determine the water content (percentage) at the point when the soil started to behave with liquid qualities. This test procedure involved gradually adding water to a round well created in two thirds of the soil sample on a glass plate. Then using two spatulas the sample was mixed until a smooth paste was formed. This was then followed by placing a small amount of the sample into the liquid limit device and leveling it horizontally using the spatula to create a smooth surface.Using the grooving tool the sample in the cup was divided in half. To de termine the number of blows the handle of the mechanism was rotated at a speed of two blows per second and the number of blows recorded until the soil closed the groove to a length of 1 cm. It was expected that the number of blows be as close to 25+ or – 3 as possible. The group was successful in our fourth attempt where 28 blows were recorded. Once the sample was successful it was removed from the liquid limit cup and placed within a tin and the mass weighed. This was determined to calculate the moisture content percentage.The mixture in the liquid limit range was placed in a 0. 25 meter length mould with a internal diameter of 0. 025 meters and left on top of the oven so that the linear shrinkage could be determined. All values obtained are discussed in the results. * Plastic Limit (PL) To determine the plastic limit (as a percentage), after which the soil could no longer be deformed; water was added to the remaining one third of the dry soil on a separate glass plate and m olded by hand. Small amounts of the soil were rolled on the flat glass plate until they formed into a diameter of 3 mm and then started to break apart.According to AS12989 it was proved that the soil had reached its plastic limit. This soil was then placed in a tin and similarly to the liquid limit all mass values of the tin and sample were recorded. These were left to dry in the oven. All results obtained the following day have been discussed in the results section. * Linear Shrinkage (%) As instructed, results for the linear shrinkage were collected after duration of 24 hours from the laboratory and the linear shrinkage (in percentage) was calculated using the formula: LS=LsL*100 where Ls=Recorded Shrinkage L=Initial Length of SampleIn addition to the linear shrinkage, all dry mass results were also collected from the previous day and recorded as shown in the results section of this report. * Plastic Index Conduction of the plastic limit and linear shrinkage test led to the calcul ation of the moisture content in percentage and this further allowed us to calculate the plastic index using the formula. Ip=Wl- Wp where Wl=Liquid Limit Wp=Plastic Limit * Classification of Soil After the soil tests have been completed as listed above and results obtained, the soil sample was classified according to the Australian Standards AS1726 – 1993.To aid in this classification of the soil, table 8 (Identification and Classification of Coarse Grained Soils) and table 9 (Identification and classification of Fine grained Soils) as well as Graph 1 (Plasticity Chart vs. Liquid Limit) have been used and attached in Appendix C. Further criteria such as Plasticity of Fines, Color of Soil, Cohesive strength and Classification Group symbol (Table 7 Soil Classification Symbols) can also be used. Results * Sieve Analysis – Determining the Particle size Distribution Tin #| | Mass of Wet soil + Tin| 203. 79| Mass of Dry soil + Tin| 165. 0| Mass of Tin| 32. 60| Mass of Moistu re| 38. 19| Mass of Dry Soil| 133. 00| Moisture Content| 28. 70| Initisl Mass of Oven Dried Sample| 500g| Mass of oven Dried Sample retained over 75? m| 312. 1g| Percentage of Coarse Fraction| 37. 58g| Mass of Dry sample passing the 75? m| 187. 9g| Table 1: Soil Sample Preparation Values – Total Mass of Sample used for Sieve Analysis = 500 grams – Mass of Coarse Fraction of Sample Used for Sieve Analysis AS Apperture| Mass Retained (g)| % Retained| % Passing| 37. 5mm| 0. 00| 0. 00%| 100. 00%| 26. 5mm| 0. 00| 0. 00%| 100. 00%| 19mm| 13. 0| 2. 60%| 97. 40%| 13. 2mm| 14. 70| 2. 94%| 94. 46%| 9. 5mm| 1. 00| 0. 20%| 94. 26%| 6. 7mm| 13. 90| 2. 78%| 91. 48%| 4. 75mm| 17. 30| 3. 46%| 88. 02%| 2. 36mm| 61. 60| 12. 32%| 75. 70%| 1. 18mm| 63. 10| 12. 62%| 63. 08%| 600? m| 51. 40| 10. 28%| 52. 80%| 425? m| 22. 00| 4. 40%| 48. 40%| 300? m| 20. 30| 4. 06%| 44. 34%| 150? m| 22. 60| 4. 52%| 39. 82%| 75? m| 7. 60| 1. 52%| 38. 30%| Pan| 0. 40| 0. 08%| 38. 22%| | SUM = 308. 9| | | Table 2: Particle size Distribution of the Soil Sample Particle size vs. Percentage Passing (%) can be viewed in the Appendix section of this report.D_10| N/A| D_30| N/A| D_60| 1. 1 mm| Coefficient of Uniformity| N/A| Coefficient of Curvature| N/A| Table 3: Particle Size Determination Coefficients As the Particle Size vs. Percentage Passing graph was unable to be plotted fully, the values for D_10 and D_30 could not be determined hence not allowing the Coefficient of Uniformity and Curvature to be found. * Atterberg Limits Determination (Liquid Limit) Liquid limit| Test no. | Test 1| Test 2| Test 3| Test 4| Tin #| 12| 58| 80| 61| Number of Blows| 7| 21| 14| 28| Mass of Wet Soil and Tin| 45. 8| 35. 77| 39. 32| 27. 6| Mass of Dry Soil and Tin| 38| 28. 4| 34. 5| 22. 5| Mass of Tin| 24. 21| 14. 57| 26. 31| 15. 42| Mass of Moisture| 7. 8| 7. 37| 4. 82| 4. 86| Mass of Dry Soil| 13. 79| 13. 83| 8. 19| 7. 08| Moisture Content| 56. 56%| 53. 29%| 58. 85%| 68. 64%| Table 4: Liquid Limit Determinati on The results obtained in the table 4 (liquid limit determination) above show that after conducting four tests in the lab the number of blows were varied quite a lot. The reason behind this was that at the start a greater amount of liquid then required was placed in the soil making it two wet.Then as extra dry soil was added to the sample the number of blows gradually increased allowing for a result acceptable within the 25 + – 3 limit was met in test 4 Hence the soil sample’s LL can be taken as 68. 64%. * Atterberg Limits Determination (Plastic Limit) Plastic Limit| Test no. | Test 1| Tin #| 16| Mass of Wet Soil and Tin| 37. 06| Mass of Dry Soil and Tin| 34. 5| Mass of Tin| 23. 94| Mass of Moisture | 2. 56| Mass of Dry Soil| 10. 56| Moisture Content| 24. 24%| Avg. Moisture Content| 59. 34%| Table 5: Plastic Limit DeterminationThe above table represents the values calculated and determined results for the plastic limit of the soil in this experiment. This was done by weighing the mass of the soil and tin after it had been rolled into a 3mm diameter rod until it crumbled and then oven dried. * Atterberg Limits Determination (Plastic Index) Looking at the graph attached in the appendix B (Number of Blows vs. Moisture Content), the value for the Plastic Limit was unable to be as accurately determined as we would have hoped but using the plastic Index equation below it was found to be 44. %. Plastic Index %= Liquid Limit-Plastic Limit=___________% Plastic Index %= 68. 64-24. 24=44. 4% Linear Shrinkage Determination| Mould No. | 3| Crumbling of Sample| NO| Length of Mould| 254mm| Curling of Sample| NO| Length of Soil| 222mm| Cracking of Sample| YES| Linear Shrinkage| 12. 60%| * Atterberg Limits Determination (Linear Shrinkage) Table 6: Linear Shrinkage Determination After removing the mould containing the soil sample after 24 hours from the top of the oven, the linear shrinkage of the soil was measured using a ruler.The result as shown above in table 6, the soil has shrunk 32mm in length and cracking of the sample has occurred. The same has not crumbled at touch and has not shown any curling effects. The Overall linear shrinkage is calculated to be 12. 60%. LS=LsL*100 LS=32254*100=12. 60% Discussion The classification of the Coarse and Fine Grained soil was made according to the Australian Standards as1726 – 1993. All justification of the results and classifications of the Sieve Analysis and Atterberg Limits have been made through the combination of the identification and classification tables in the appendix. Coarse Grained Soil As per the Particle size plot in the appendix, the sample is shown to have only coarse grain materials. Consisting of 22% Gravel (7% Medium Grain and 15% Fine Grain) and 38% Sand (22% Coarse Grain, 13% Medium Grain and 3% Fine Grain), indicates that the soil is widely distributed and hence making it a Gravelly SAND. * Fine Grained Soil Using the Atterberg Limits to find the Plastic Limit and Liq uid Limit percentages, these were applied to the Plasticity vs. Liquid Limit Chart (AS1726-1993) to determine the classification of the soil sample.As the intersection point is below the â€Å"A† line with a high liquid limit of 68. 64%, the reaction to shaking was low to none and the toughness is low, the classification of the soil sample is most likely to be MS-SILT Highly Plastic. Also according to the Australian Standards the color of our soil was Brown mottled red-brown. Since the fine grained soil was cohesion less and free running we can classify the soil as dry. In accordance to the Plasticity vs. Liquid Limit chart the soil is of High Plasticity as the liquid limit was of a value greater than 50%.In addition to the above, the particle size distribution curve is also widely spread so the soil is classified as â€Å"Well Graded†. Conclusion In this experiment we used the Sieve analysis and Atterberg Limits tests to investigate the properties of the soil as menti oned in the Australian Standards AS1726 -1993. In addition sample tests were conducted including the liquid limit test (LL), plastic limit test (PL), plastic index test (PI) and linear shrinkage (LS) of the soil sample provided by the administration. All results obtained have been justified and the classifications of the soil made in accordance to the Australian Standards 1726 – 1993.References Evans R, 2010, HES2155 Geomechanics, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne VIC. Appendices Appendix A (Particle Size vs. Percentage Passing Plot) Appendix B (Plot of Number of Blows Vs. Moisture Content) Appendix C (Soil Classification Tables) Table 7: List of Soil Classification Symbols. Table 8: Identification and Classification of Coarse Grained Soil. Table 9: Identification and Classification of Fine Grained Soil. Graph 1: Plasticity Chart vs. Liquid Limit Appendix D (Formulas and Sample Calculations)